Title : Molding the brain: The neural response to intensive motor and cognitive training
Abstract:
Globalization and technological advancements have contributed a shift towards hyperspecialization--the division of work into more specialized pieces done by multiple people--to achieve improvements in quality, efficiency, and cost in the labor market. However, there is a mismatch between the specialized skills employers are looking for and the available skillsets of unemployed workers. Neuroscience research on long-term persistent training in highly specialized trades and neuroplasticity can bring insight into solutions for these labor market challenges, illustrating how our brains can change with a changing job market. This review looks at 10 experimental studies to see how specific job requirements and cognitive demands influence the brain's structure and function. These studies observed structural and functional neuroplasticity due to long-term persistent training in two domains of skills: athletic/motor and cognitive memory skills. Findings show how intensive training in both motor and cognitive skills instigates remarkable changes in the brain's ability to adapt and evolve, even in adulthood, having implications for workforce policy and future work on occupational neuroscience.
Key words: neuroplasticity, motor skill training, cognitive tasks, brain regions, structural and functional brain changes, memory athletes, long-term persistent training, spatial navigation, superior parietal cortex, sports related motor skills, cerebellum, visual memory
Molding the Brain: The Neural Response to Intensive Motor and Cognitive Training In an ever-evolving job market affected by technological advances and globalization, there is a significant shift towards specialized roles. Increasingly, statistics illustrate a trend where employment opportunities cater to specific skills and knowledge bases (Fuller et al.,2022). Scholars argue that this increase in the division of labor signifies an era of hyperspecialization: work previously done by one person is divided into more specialized pieces done by multiple people, achieving improvements in quality, speed, and cost. (Malone et al., 2011). This specialization has created entirely new environments that individuals must navigate. However, with this change, a question emerges: What does this mean for workers’ skills and training? Employment opportunities are more geared towards what researchers call “knowledge workers.” Ironically, while unemployment rates may soar, employers often struggle to find candidates with the proper set of specialized skill sets (Fuller et al., 2021). The division between the specialized job openings and the available workforce highlights the challenges and opportunities of the modern employment field. Research might indicate that our brains can actually change to meet the needs of these jobs. The answer to navigating this complex landscape might lie in long-term persistent training. Long-term persistent training refers to extended periods of deliberate practice and skill refinement within a specific profession, leading to enduring changes in the brain's structure and/or function that enhance cognitive abilities and task performance associated with that occupation. Occupational neuroscience is a field that looks at the relationship between the brain’s plasticity and long-term occupational training or experience (Wu et al., 2020). Occupational neuroplasticity is the phenomenon of brain changes due to occupational performance. This field of research illustrates how our brains can change with a changing job market.
Neuroscience researchers have looked at specific trades that require unique skill sets to understand training-related neuroplastic changes in the brain better. In this paper, I review the literature on occupational neuroplasticity across two core skills that are relevant to various hyperspecialized trades: 1) motor/athletic and 2) cognitive/memory across both brain function and structure. The review is guided by the following research question: how do specific job requirements and cognitive demands influence the brain's structural and functional neuroplasticity. What are the potential implications for cognitive performance in the modern job market?
Neuroplasticity and Long-term Persistent Training
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's unique ability to adapt and reorganize itself in response to experiences, learning, and changes in the environment. Structurally, it involves modifications in the connections between neurons, while functionally, it encompasses the brain's capacity to adjust its activity patterns to accommodate new tasks or demands. More specifically, changes in brain structure refers to the physical organization and arrangement of different brain regions and their components,while brain function refers to the processes carried out by the brain to perform different tasks, such as memory usually measured by gray matter. Gray matter is responsible for processing information in the brain and spinal cord and plays a crucial role in various cognitive functions. Brain function refers to the processes carried out by the brain to perform different tasks, such as memory. This is usually measured by an fMRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging, which is a type of brain scan that measures and maps the brain’s activity. Unlike regular MRi scans, an fMRI shows what parts of the brain are active while a person is performing or thinking something specific by measuring the changes in blood flow.
Research on neuroplastic changes as a result of long-term persistent training is often done in two major skill sets: motor/athletic and cognitive/memory. Motor athletic skills are the physical abilities and techniques developed by athletes to perform effectively in their sports. These skills involve using precise coordination of muscles, nerves, and the brain to execute movements necessary for activities like running, jumping, throwing, and balancing. Cognitive skills are the brain’s abilities that enable individuals to acquire, process, and apply knowledge. They include memory, paying attention, solving problems, making decisions, and understanding things. This research typically looks at trades that include long-term persistent training, where individuals are defined as experts, specialists, elite professionals.
- Motor Skill Training and Neuroplasticity
- Motor Skills and Structural Neuroplasticity
Studies have shown how long-term persistent motor skill training can lead to plastic changes in brain structure. For example, one study investigated the structural neuroplasticity of 19 elite ice skating athletes compared to 15 non-athletes (Zhang et. al, 2021). These ice skaters were considered “master athletes”, training for over 10 years on average. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM), a neuroimaging technique that measures the amount of gray matter in different brain regions, revealed that elite ice skating athletes exhibited higher gray matter volume in the posterior cerebellum, frontal lobe, temporal lobe, posterior cingulate, caudate, and thalamus.
Similarly, professional badminton athletes also experience structural plasticity as a result of their training. A study included 20 professional badminton players and 18 healthy controls and used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure gray matter concentration (GMC) in the whole brain using VBM (Di et. al, 2012). The results showed that the badminton player had greater GMC in the right and medial cerebellar regions, involved in visuospatial processing and hand-to-eye coordination compared to the control group. Another study analyzed the structural brain differences between 22 healthy right-handed participants who were either sedentary (referring to a lifestyle with little to no physical activity) or ultra-endurance ironman athletes (individuals who engage in levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA)) (Paruk T et. al , 2020). The participants underwent MRI scans, and grey and white matter were measured using whole brain analysis and VBM as well. The study found that ultra-endurance athletes had larger gray and white matter volume in the brain overall compared to sedentary individuals. Interestingly, however, the ultra-endurance group showed smaller gray matter volumes in specific brain regions important for sensorimotor function and exercise fatigue.
These studies all found increases in GM in the cerebellum in particular, which are known to be involved in learning and retention of motor skills. Interestingly though, studying Korean basketball players, Park et al., (2006;2009), did not find significant differences in the cerebellar volume between the athletes and the height-matched controls, attributing this to potential differences in the motor skills required for basketball compared to other athletic sports. However, looking more granularly at changes in vermian lobules using three-dimensional MRI volumetry, Park et al. (2009) found that basketball players had significantly larger volumes of vermian lobules VI-VII compared to healthy controls. All of these case studies on various athletes and training suggest that intensive practice of sports-related motor skills can activate structural plasticity in the cerebellum specifically, as well as in other brain regions such as the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, posterior cingulate, caudate, and thalamus. They also demonstrate that unique and specific skill sets within various sports-related motor skill training (e.g. ones that differentiate basketball from badminton), may even result in different, more granular structural changes.
Motor skills and Functional Neuroplasticity
Studies have shown how long-term persistent motor skill training can lead to plastic changes in functional connectivity as well. The ice skater study by Zhang et al. (2021) as well as the research on Badminton athletes also explored functional brain plasticity (Di et al, 2012). Zhang et al. (2021) used resting-state fMRI on the 19 elite ice skating athletes and 15 non athletes to analyze the differences in functional connectivity in the whole brain. The study found that elite ice-skating athletes showed stronger connectivity between the posterior cerebellar lobe and fusiform gyrus . Additionally, the functional plasticity changes were primarily concentrated in the posterior cerebellar lobe. Similarly, Di et al. (2012) utilized resting-state functional MRI to measure functional connectivity between brain regions in badminton players and healthy controls. The results showed that the badminton players had altered functional connectivity between the left superior parietal and frontal regions, which are involved in visuo-spatial processing and cognitive control. Bezzola et. al (2012) expanded the research on practice-based neuroplasticity by looking at novice / leisure-based motor activity in middle-aged rather than long-term persistent practice in athletes. Golf novices were analyzed at two time points, and compared to a match comparison group who were not practicing motor training in golf as a leisure activity. Researchers measured the mental rehearsal of a golf swing in non-primary motor areas under fMRI. During the imagery condition, motor imagery activity was m ainly observed in secondary motor areas, sub cortical regions, and the superior parietal cortex. In the second measurement, the researches found reduced task-related brain activation during motor imagery of the golf swing, specifically in the right and left dorsal premortor cortex.
In conclusion, when individuals commit to long-term persistent motor skill training, it can potentially induce significant changes in the brain's functional connectivity both across the whole brain as well as within specific brain regions. From these examples, changes in brain structure include brain regions involved in the superior parietal regions, specifically the left superior parietal and cortex, which are important for spatial processing and attention. Interestingly, these studies show how functional change from motor activity can be a result of both professional, long-term training for athletes, as well as This process showcases the brain's remarkable adaptability, reinforcing the relationship between consistent train efforts and the neural adjustments that underlie enhanced motor performance.
- Cognitive and Memory Skill Training and Neuroplasticity
- Cognitive and Memory Skills and Structural Neuroplasticity.
Studies have shown how long-term persistent cognitive and memory skill training can lead to plastic changes in different brain regions. A study by Maguire et. al (2000) explored the plastic changes in brain structure in response to environmental demands. The study included 20 licensed London taxi drivers and 30 control subjects who did not drive taxis who were matched for age and gender. Through a cross-sectional design, researchers utilized two different methods to analyze the MRI scans of the participants’ brains: VBM to measure gray matter volume in the whole brain and a pixel counting technique to measure the volume of the hippocampus, which are brain regions important for spatial navigation. The study found that the posterior hippocampi of London taxi drivers were significantly larger than those of control subjects. This suggests that the extensive navigation experience of the taxi drivers may have altered their brains. After her groundbreaking findings of the London taxi drivers, Maguire shifted her attention towards memory athletes. She wanted to find out if the superior memorizers had structural differences in their brains similar to the London taxi drivers or just optimized their memorization skills that everyone posseses. The researchers placed the memory champions and a comparable control group inside MRI machines. They were then tasked with remembering three-digit numbers, grayscale pictures of individuals' faces, and enlarged snowflake images while their brain activity was being monitored. The study used a whole-brain VBM to compare the difference between superior memorizers (SMs) and control subjects in gray matter volume. The VBM analysis was automated, meaning it was not limited to specific brain regions, and considered the whole brain. However, the study found no significant difference in gray matter volume between SMs and control subjects. Structural changes from superior memory cannot be detected using VBM. Rather, functional differences through the fMRI were detected. Maguire et. al (2002).
Structural changes in the brain can happen for individuals who engage in intensive cognitive training/tasks. However there was no structural differences in gray matter seen in memory athletes compared to control subjects, which brings up some hypotheses. One difference between taxi driving and superior memory athletes is a physical task associated with the cognitive (e.g. driving). This suggests perhaps an importance of physical skills tied to cognitive skills that support structural changes. Alternatively, it is possible that there could be other structural changes outside of grey matter as measured by VBM that Maguire and others could not detect.
Cognitive and Memory Skills and Functional Neuroplasticity
Studies have shown how long-term persistent cognitive and memory skill training can lead to plastic changes in functional connectivity. One study investigated the differences in dynamic function network connectivity (dFNC) between 38 professional chess players with an average training of 4.17 hours per day and 20 beginner chess players whose sex and age-matched the professional group. Researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure the functional connectivity in the brains of professionals and beginner chess players. Additionally, they analyzed the dFNC between different brain regions in the two groups and found that professional players have greater dFNC in their brain networks, which may be related to their superior cognitive abilities in chess. Similarly, memory athletes who heavily depend on their cognitive abilities showed differences in which regions of their brain they utilized when memorizing. Although the study failed to find structural differences, they discussed the functional differences between the superior memorizers (SMs) and the control subjects using fMRI to investigate differences in brain areas engaged while processing incoming information. The analysis utilized Statistical Parametric mapping (SPM99) to identify the brain activation during specific tasks. The study found that superior memory was associated with the preferential engagement of three brain regions: the medial parietal cortex, retrosplenial cortex, and the right posterior hippocampus. The same hippocampal region that was found to be enlarged in London cabbies was found in these memory athletes. These regions of the brain are known to be utilized in visual memeory and spatial navigation. These regions were more active in SMs than the control group when performing tasks requiring encoding and retrieving complex visual information. These two studies demonstrate how functional neuroplasticity resulting from long-term persistent training in cognitive and memory tasks can be measured and shown in various ways.
The findings from the professional chess player reveal a heightened dFNC, which suggests a possible link to their advanced cognitive capabilities in chess. Similarly, memory athletes who heavily rely on superior cognitive abilities utilize distinct patterns of brain region engagement during memorization tasks. While structural changes were undetectable, the functional disparities were evident especially in areas such as the medial parietal cortex, retrosplenial cortex, and the right posterior hippocampus. These regions vital to visual memory and spatial navigation exhibited heightened activity in the SMs compared to the control group. Such findings show the brain’s remarkable ability to reorganize its functional pathways in response to rigorous cognitive demands and specialized training.
Conclusions
This review looks at 10 different experimental studies that measured structural and/or functional neuroplasticity as a result of long-term persistent training in either motor skills or cognitive memory skills. I sought to answer the question, how do specific job requirements and cognitive demands influence the brain's structural and functional neuroplasticity.
This review demonstrates how intensive training in both motor and cognitive skills instigates remarkable changes in the brain's structure and function. Studies on athletes reveal that rigorous practice activates structural plasticity in specific brain regions, including the cerebellum frontal lobe and more. The training that hones unique skills in specific sports can lead to distinct structural modifications. Similarly, persistent cognitive training displays the brain's ability to adapt to functional connectivity alterations within different regions, such as the superior parietal and cortex areas vital for spatial processing and attention. While memory athletes did not show any difference in gray matter compared to a control group, the functional differences were prominent, especially in regions crucial to visual memory and spatial navigation like the medial parietal cortex and the right posterior hippocampus. These findings suggest a possible link between physical and cognitive skills in developing structural changes. Despite the absence of structural or functional shifts in some studies, the present alterations highlight the brain’s impressive ability to restructure its pathways in response to long-term training and high cognitive demands emphasizing the relationship between constant effort and enhanced performance.
My review shows how our brains are capable of adapting to different work demands, and this might help us perform better mentally. This research helps provide insight into what tools and interventions can be used to set workers up for success in this changing economy. This research can help support both employees and employers in adapting to a more hyper-specialized workforce. Although the everyday worker may not be a professional ice skater or memory athlete, these findings show how career paths can change the brain and bring promise to how we can change our brains to be more suitable for a changing economy.
Implications
Moreover, this review also illuminated some potential implications for cognitive performance in the modern job market. Structural and functional findings show the ability to adapt throughout one’s life. In hyperspecialized roles, one might need to quickly adjust to new tools or techniques within their narrow focus. Similarly, effective brain training pushes the brain to adapt to new challenges, which promotes growth. Our growing grasp of brain plasticity, the remarkable ability of the brain to adapt and evolve, holds transformative potential for both policy and education. For example, this growing body of work can inform shifts in workforce training and education to address the gap between high unemployment rates and employers’ struggle to find potential employees with their desired skill sets. Additionally, these findings bring up potential connections to research on cognitive enhancement interventions that could help support individuals looking to expand their skill sets even in adulthood. Future work in hyperspecialization should continue to incorporate research on long-term persistent training and neuroplasticity to better incorporate evidence-based research to address modern labor market problems.
